If the last action of a function $f$ is to call another function $g$, the language run-time doesn't need to keep $f$'s stack frame around when calling $g$:

let f n =
Printf.printf "Hello, World!";
g (n + 1)


Instead, the run-time may re-purpose' $f$'s stack frame for $g$, saving space and time in stack (de)allocations. This optimisation, known as tail call elimination, is useful in many language paradigms. It is useful in functional programming languages for which recursion is the idiomatic way to repeat actions.

Unfortunately, many standard uses of recursion are not tail-call optimisable:

let rec map f = function
| [] -> []
| x :: xs ->
let y = f x in
y :: map f xs


The $x :: xs$ case proceeds as follows:

1. Compute $y := f(x)$;
2. Recursively compute $t_1 := \texttt{map f xs}$;
3. Allocate $t_2 := y :: t_1$ on the heap;
4. Return $t_2$.

Step 3 prevents the tail-call optimisation: the runtime must build the list node after computing the tail with map f xs. Our map function is almost tail-recursive: if not for the data constructor (::), it would be. We call such functions 'tail recursive modulo cons'. There are two ways to make map fully tail-recursive:

• We could build the result list in reverse order, then reverse it in one pass at the end. This is not ideal since our intermediate list requires time to build and creates work for the garbage collector.
• We could change the list type to allow us to build the list node first, and later fill in the correct tail. In OCaml, this needs a ref indirection.

Let's try the latter approach. We introduce a ref and pass the 'tail to be filled in later' as an explicit argument:

type 'a mutable_list = (::) of 'a * 'a ref | []

let rec map f xs =
let rec inner res = function
| [] -> ()
| x :: xs ->
let y = f x in
(* create an 'incomplete' list node *)
let tail = ref [] in
res := y :: tail;
inner tail !xs (* tail call! *)
in
let res = ref [] in
inner res xs; !res


Putting 'incomplete' values into the heap as a user requires changing the list type to contain references, but the OCaml runtime doesn't have the same restriction! It can choose to modify 'immutable' heap contents if it wants, allowing our original map` to be compiled to take $O(1)$-space and not generate any garbage!

The transformation given above can be applied whenever a function is 'tail recursive modulo cons': whenever the only actions after the last function call are heap allocations. The OCaml compiler doesn't yet make this optimisation, but it could! There are interesting details to be fixed, such as what happens when a garbage collection happens in the middle of the TRMC recursion.1